OVERVIEW

Food is anything people eat -- meats, grains, vegetables, and so on-to keep themselves alive. The preparation of food is whatever people do to the food to get it ready for eating. In the case of the Hebrews, food was also sometimes prepared to be given to YHVH as a part of the nation’s offerings and sacrifices or to be given to another person as a gift. Food was more plentiful in Palestine [often described in the Bible as a land "flowing with milk and honey"] than in many other parts of the Near East. Shallow ploughing of the soil however, meant that the success of crops depended heavily on regular rainfall. The success of Egyptian crops depended less on the weather, because the Nile River provided a regular source of water. Thus, in Israel people were always concerned that there would be enough food. Sometimes droughts would threaten crops and livestock {Jeremiah 14:1-6}, and sometimes hailstorms would destroy the crops in the field {Haggai 2:17}. Sometimes war would interrupt farming {2 Kings 6:25}, and sometimes locusts would sweep into an area in large numbers and eat up all the plants {Joel 1:1}. When food was in short supply, people would often consider it a warning or punishment from YHVH {Amos 4:6-9}. They took it as a reminder that life is more than food and that faith must continue despite low food supplies, famine, or even death {Habakkuk 3:17-18}. The Hebrews’ relationship with food changed somewhat as their way of life changed. In the early years, when the Hebrews were nomads moving across the land, their staple foods were the milk, curds, and cheese they got from their herds. As the people settled in one place, they grew grains and vegetables and planted orchards and vineyards. But even then, some people would choose to move with their flocks to other pastures after gathering in a harvest. Other aspects of the Hebrews’ relationship with food did not change. For example, throughout their history they would enjoy eating together as a part of their religious feasts and festivals. They would also celebrate a victory in war by feasting on food collected from the camp of their defeated enemy. Something else that did not change was the range of food that could be produced in that part of the world. The people of the Bible enjoyed the dairy products, grains, vegetables, and other foods native to Palestine.

DAIRY

Milk and its by-products formed a vital part of the Hebrew diet {Judges 4:19}. Most often, the Hebrews used goat’s milk, although milk from camels, cows, and sheep was also available {Genesis 32:15; Deuteronomy 32:14; Proverbs 27:27}. Since fresh milk could not be preserved in Palestine’s hot climate, it was processed into buttermilk, curds, and cheese. Milk was poured into a pouch, where it soured and thickened because of the nonsterile condition of the pouch, which had been used before. During transport, the movement of the pouch -- often made from a cow’s stomach -- containing the enzyme rennin used to make cheese-produced curds. Curds are first mentioned in the Bible as part of the meal that Abraham provided for his angelic guests {Genesis 18:8}. The Hebrew word for curds is also translated "butter" {Job 10:10}. This butter was similar in consistency to yogurt from which the water has been squeezed. When pressed and rolled into small balls, it kept a long time, despite the climate. Thus, compressed curds were particularly valuable for journeys in dry regions where food was scarce.

GRAIN

The food most frequently mentioned in the Bible is bread. The term "bread" refers in a general sense to all foods but more particularly to food prepared from grain. In biblical times bread was prepared from several grains, including wheat, barley, and spelt {Exodus 9:31-32}. An Egyptian physician named Sinuhe, living in the mid-twentieth century BC, recorded that bread was baked daily in Palestine and Syria. Most likely, bread was served with every meal in Palestine. This bread was probably a wafer or flat cake made from barley or emmer [an inferior form of wheat], since these were the two grain crops that Sinuhe mentioned seeing. Wheat was the most expensive grain in that part of the world. Fine wheat flour was a luxury only the rich could afford {Ezekiel 16:13, 19}. In later periods wheat became a valuable export crop that was shipped from Tyre to other ports around the Mediterranean Sea. Because barley could grow in less productive soil and was more tolerant of drought conditions, it became a popular grain crop in the ancient Near East. Barley could also be harvested several weeks earlier than wheat. Barley bread and barley cakes were eaten by the typical labourer {2 Kings 4:42}. Yeshua miraculously multiplied a young boy’s five barley loaves and two fishes and then fed 5,000 people with them {John 6:9-13}. Millet -- a cereal with a small grain head growing on a stalk less than 2 feet [0.6 meter] high-was used in times of need as a border around the edges of fields. The same was true for a type of wheat called spelt. The most primitive way of processing grain was to rub the ears between the hands to separate the kernels, as Yeshua and His disciples did {Luke 6:1}. To perform this act on the Shabbat [the day of rest] was considered the equivalent of reaping and was therefore forbidden by the Sanhedrin [rabbis]. Parching [roasting the grain lightly in a pan] was another simple method of preparation {1 Samuel 17:17}. It created a quick and easy meal for labourers and even for kings {Ruth 2:14; 2 Samuel 17:28}. Parched corn was ideal for taking on journeys. Bread making was hard work. Mortars and pestles [bowls with pounding sticks], and simple mills with upper and lower stones, were used for grinding flour in ancient Egypt at least as early as 2900 BC. Such primitive mills were normally placed on the ground, and one had to kneel in order to do the backbreaking work. The resulting meal was coarse and filled with small pieces of husk. When the flour had been prepared, bread makers added water and kneaded the mixture in a special trough. They could then make the dough into cakes, pancakes, or unleavened bread {Genesis 19:3}. They would often bake these flat cakes on previously heated stones, on the inner walls of small, cone-shaped ovens, or in larger ovens used by more than one family. They added leaven to make a lighter dough. The leaven was normally a piece of dough left over from an earlier mixing and allowed to ferment before being used. Bread makers would also sometimes mix a porridge of lentil beans into the flour meal in order to stretch the food supply.

MEAT, EGGS, AND FISH

Foods from animals were not as common in the diet of the Hebrews as were some other kinds of foods. But they are mentioned numerous times in the Bible anyway. Meat seems to have been introduced into the human diet when Noah and his family left the ark {Genesis 9:3}. Long after this time however, the animals normally eaten for food were so valuable that only the wealthy could afford to slaughter them. Meat was a luxury item that the poor were rarely able to enjoy, except on such occasions as the Passover celebration or at sacrifices in which the worshiper ate part of the offering {Exodus 12:8}. Although it was clearly bad business to slaughter an animal that produced such staples as milk, curds, and cheese, the rules of hospitality in the Near East dictated that an animal should be killed to entertain an honoured guest {2 Samuel 12:2-4}. Domestic sheep, goats, and oxen provided the main sources of meat, although venison was popular with the upper classes. When the blind Isaac was deceived by his son Jacob, the father was offered the luxury of both kid’s meat and wild game {Genesis 27:9, 19}. The ox kept in a stall or the fatted calf was reserved for occasions of great festivity {Matthew 22:4}. The books of Leviticus and Deuteronomy include rules for the use of meat for sacrifice. The Law did not permit anyone to slaughter an animal and its offspring on the same day {Leviticus 22:28}. Another prohibition [perhaps a reaction to Canaanite sacrificial rituals] would not allow a kid to be stewed or poached in its mother’s milk {Deuteronomy 14:21}. Furthermore, the Law strictly prohibited the consumption of blood in any form. Animal blood was considered to be the source of the animal’s life and was offered by priests as a sacrifice to YHVH to atone for human sin {Leviticus 17:11}. In the Law of Moses, pigs, camels, badgers, and rabbits were forbidden as food, mainly on grounds of uncleanness {11:4-8}. In the ancient world, meat was normally boiled or stewed. An ox or kid was usually roasted only as part of a special feast or sacrificial ritual. Animals might also be roasted for residents of the royal palace or for a king’s special guests. Despite the popularity of hunting, wild game provided only a minor part of most persons’ diets. Among the kinds of game found in Palestine and mentioned in the Bible are gazelle, roebuck, wild goat, and deer {Deuteronomy 14:5; 1 Kings 4:23}. Probably pheasants were available, and there were certainly turtledoves, pigeons, quails, and partridges {Genesis 15:9; Exodus 16:13}. Goose was the most popular dish in Egypt, and marsh ducks were also highly esteemed as game. After the Persian period, chickens were eaten {2 Esdras 1:30}. Eggs and omelettes were popular in Rome in early believer times. The eggs mentioned in Deuteronomy were probably wild birds’ eggs {Deuteronomy 22:6-7}. Thirty varieties of fish were available in the Jordan River, and an extensive fishing industry existed on the shores of the Sea of Galilee at the time of the Moshiach. Supplies of fish were readily available from the Mediterranean coast during the Roman period, but at an earlier time the fish supply depended to a large extent upon which nation had control of the coastline. In the period after the Diaspora of the Jews in Babylon, the people of Tyre supplied the city of Jerusalem with fish, which were sold near the Fish Gate {Nehemiah 3:3}. In the regulations concerning the types of fish suitable for food, only those that had fins and scales were acceptable {Leviticus 11:9-12}. In New Testament times, many of the distinctions concerning food were eliminated. Yeshua, challenging the Pharisees’ hypocrisy, upset the Jewish food laws by saying that evil thoughts, not certain foods, make a person unclean {Mark 7:19}. As the faith in Yeshua spread into gentile areas, there was, however, a continuing concern about eating meat that had been offered to idols. The question came to a head in Corinth. The apostle Paul maintained that though the meat was acceptable, one should take care not to cause spiritual damage to another believer with a more sensitive conscience {1 Corinthians 8}.

INSECTS

While many of us today would never consider eating insects, ancient peoples did not have the same attitude. The Hebrews would sometimes eat a few kinds of insects as well as [in the case of honey] the product of insects. Locusts were one type of insects used as a food in Bible times. These insects were probably first eaten in desperation after they had devastated crops. Locusts are one of the few insects mentioned in the Law as a permissible source of food {Leviticus 11:22}. Locusts formed a part of John the Baptist’s diet as he lived in the wilderness {Matthew 3:4}. People would prepare locusts for eating in a number of different ways. Sometimes they would fry them in flour or honey. At other times they would dry them to preserve them for eating later. Locusts contain little protein but are rich in fat and have some mineral content. As for honey, it appears that the Hebrews ate the wild variety. While the Egyptians practiced beekeeping, there is no evidence that the Hebrews did so. They would merely gather what honey they could find in the wild. Honey was to be found in crevices of rocks and on trees {Deuteronomy 32:13}. Wild honey seems to have been plentiful in Palestine. The honeycomb is mentioned specifically in Song of Solomon 5:1. Liquid honey is referred to in 1 Kings 14:3. It was the primary sweetener in cooking. Although it could not be used in a sacrifice to Adonai {Leviticus 2:11}, honey was prized as a delicacy. In the fifteenth century BC, when Thutmose III was campaigning in Syria and Palestine, he brought back vast quantities of honey as tribute from his newly conquered lands.

VEGETABLES AND SEASONING

Along with grain crops, vegetables were a key part of Hebrew agriculture. Vegetables added valuable nutrients to the people’s diet. And seasonings, whether from herbs or from other sources, saved the diet from blandness. The biblical record of the Hebrews’ history with vegetables and seasonings begins early. During their wilderness wanderings in Sinai, the Hebrew people complained about the loss of the flavourful vegetables they had enjoyed during their Egyptian captivity. In particular, they expressed a longing for cucumbers, melons [possibly watermelons], leeks, onions, and garlic [Numbers 11:5]. Many of these vegetables were later grown in Palestine. When cucumbers were first cultivated, they were regarded as luxury items and had to be protected by guards who lived in shacks overlooking the gardens {Isaiah 1:8}. Beans, lentils, and parched grain were among the items brought to David and his soldiers at Mahanaim {2 Samuel 17:28}. Lentils were known in Egypt from at least the thirteenth century BC and were used in meals extensively both then and in later times by the Israelites. Lentil soup is mentioned in Genesis 25:34. Apart from these popular vegetables, there were other vegetables and herbs that could be eaten in a pinch. For example, in times of hunger the husks of the carob tree [normally fed to cattle] could be used for food. The prodigal son wished he could get his hands on some of these husks {Luke 15:16}. There were also many kinds of green herbs that could provide a meal for the poor in time of need {Proverbs 15:17}. In cases of extreme hunger, some kinds of mallow and juniper roots could also be used as food. In Elisha’s time a group of prophets at Gilgal prepared a stew of wild vegetables, to which they mistakenly added poisonous wild gourds. Elisha solved the problem by adding meal to the pot {2 Kings 4:38-41}. While there is no record of the kinds of bitter herbs used as part of the Passover offering {Exodus 12:8}, mint and cummin were probably included. Dill, cummin, rue, and mint were common garden herbs {Matthew 23:23; Luke 11:42}. Seasonings were welcome additives to the rather bland Israelite fare. Salt came mainly from the Dead Sea area and was essential as a seasoning and preserving agent. Salt was so important in the diet, in fact, that it became part of the vocabulary of moral obligation. The sharing of salt with a person at a meal sealed a covenant or pact {Numbers 18:19}. In religious sacrifices salt was part of the meat and cereal offerings, since it signified the sealing of YHVH’s Covenant with Israel {Leviticus 2:13; Ezekiel 43:24}. Other seasonings were common, too. The mustard tree, which was probably grown for its oil content, grew from a tiny seed to a plant the height of fifteen feet {Matthew 13:31-32}. Anise, coriander, and cinnamon were also available {Exodus 16:31}. Perhaps the most popular and widely used seasoning, apart from salt, was garlic. Vinegar was also probably used as a flavouring agent and a preservative. From the number of seeds and plants found in Egyptian tombs from the eighteenth dynasty, it is obvious that the use of seasonings was widespread in antiquity.

FRUIT, NUTS, AND WINE

From the orchards and vineyards of Palestine came other foods common in the diets of the inhabitants. Olive trees grew abundantly in Palestine and were an excellent source of both food and oil. Even in poor soil, one tree could supply a family’s need of olive products for a whole year. Sometimes the Jews would pickle green olives in brine and eat them with bread. But the olive was most important as a source of oil. Olive oil was used in baking bread and cakes and in frying foods. The best quality olive oil was used in the temple sacrifices. Early in the nation’s history, the people had a couple of different processes for removing oil from olives. For the finest quality oil, the people would pick the olives before they were fully ripe and then crush them by hand with a stone mortar and pestle. Usually, however, pickers beat the olives from trees with long poles and collected them in baskets. They then trod on the olives to force out the oil, probably in the same vat used for grapes {Micah 6:15}, which were harvested about four weeks later. Later, an oil mill was developed. Two people would turn the heavy upper grinding stone. As the oil dripped through, it was collected in another stone vat and was allowed to settle and purify. When refined, the oil was stored in skins or jars. Along with olives, figs were an important part of the Hebrew diet. Fig trees grew in all areas of Palestine. They required little attention and provided two or three crops per year. The most abundant of these crops was the second, which ripened in late summer. The first figs of the season were considered a great delicacy {Micah 7:1}. The prophet Hosea suggested that the Israelites were like the first-fruits of the fig tree {Hosea 9:10}. Another prophet, Jeremiah, spoke of those who had gone into exile as being like the first figs, while those who were left behind were the bad figs, fit only for destruction {Jeremiah 24}. The fig was a multipurpose fruit. Figs were usually eaten fresh from the trees, but some were pressed into cakes to eat when traveling {1 Chronicles 12:40}. Figs were also valuable for medicinal purposes, since effective poultices could be made from them {2 Kings 20:7}. Sycamore trees produced small, fig-like fruit eaten primarily by the poor. A short time before harvest, the fruit was cut slightly, making it swell and ripen more quickly. The prophet Amos notched sycamore fruit before he was called by YHVH to a prophetic ministry {Amos 7:14.} Fruit from the date palm could also have been pressed into flat cakes for travellers, as figs were. The Bible, however, makes no specific reference to its fruit as food. Another popular Near Eastern fruit was the red pomegranate. Sometimes it was eaten whole, and sometimes its seeds were pressed to provide a refreshing drink. The pomegranate is mentioned in temple ritual as one of the fruits brought back from Canaan to Moses by his spies {Exodus 28:33}. It is mentioned in Song of Solomon 8:2 as the source of an exotic drink. The "apple" mentioned in Scripture {Song of Solomon 2:5} was most likely a type of apricot or quince, not an apple as it is known today in northern climates. Nuts were used for additional flavour in cooking. Almonds and pistachio nuts were among the gifts sent by Jacob to ransom his sons {Genesis 43:11}. Grapes were popular and plentiful from the early Bronze Age. In addition to being eaten fresh from the vine, grapes were dried as raisins {1 Samuel 25:18} or pressed, their juice drunk either as new wine or fermented into an alcoholic drink. One of the duties of the cupbearer in ancient royal courts was to provide grape juice or wine for the king, his family, and guests {Genesis 40:9-13}. The juice of grapes also provided vinegar when wine deteriorated. Vinegar was used as a flavouring agent in cooking and as a preservative. When diluted with water, it supplied a refreshing drink for workers in the fields. A type of jelly was made in the Near East by boiling grapes until they assumed the consistency of molasses. This syrup could also be used as a sweetening agent in cooking. Wine was the universal drink in antiquity. It could be diluted with water or mixed with spices or honey to make mulled wine {Isaiah 5:22}. The Hebrew word for "banquet" or "feast" literally means "drinking," and this reveals much about the character of such occasions. A certain amount of merriment was considered proper at a festival or banquet {Judges 9:13}. Wine making was similar in many respects to the production of olive oil. Clusters of grapes were cut from the vine with a sickle, collected in baskets, and taken to the winepress, where they were trodden by men and women. The juice ran into a lower vat, where, under the hot sun, fermentation began almost immediately. The wine was left to settle so that any twigs or skins would form a sediment. After that, the wine could be strained off. In about six weeks the wine was ready to drink or store in earthenware jars or wineskins. Wine was associated in the Hebrews’ minds with bounty and joy, and so naturally it became a symbol of YHVH’s blessing. Indeed, all the food sources we have are signs to us of YHVH’s provision