BIBLE STUDY --- BOOKS OF THE TANAKH {KETUVIM}

BOOK OF PSALMS --- PART 1

Poems sung to musical accompaniment, originally the harp. The alternative title, the Psalter, refers to a collection of songs sung to harp accompaniment. The English title therefore, broadly defines the form employed, whereas the Hebrew title of the book, “Praises,” or “Book of Praises,” suggests the content.

AUTHORS

THE EVIDENCE OF THE TITLES

The Hebrew Bible credits David with 73 psalms, compared with 84 in the Septuagint and 85 in the Latin Vulgate. Korah and Asaph, the leaders of the Levitical singing groups, are connected with 11 and 12 psalms, respectively {although Psalm 43 is almost certainly to be attributed to Korah also}. Two psalms are ascribed to Solomon {Psalms 72; 127}, one to Moses {Psalm 90}, and one to Ethan {Psalm 89}, while Heman shares the credit for one psalm with the sons of Korah {Psalm 88}. The remainder are sometimes called “orphan psalms” because of their anonymity. The preposition “of” found in the titles {for example, “A Psalm of David”} usually indicates authorship. But in the case of groups, such as the sons of Asaph or Korah, it may simply indicate that the psalms were included in their repertoire. Less plausible is the idea that it may also be rendered “for the use of.” For example, some of the “Psalms of David” might be “for the use of” the Davidic king on some occasion.

HISTORICAL ALLUSIONS IN THE TITLES

Many of the titles refer to specific events in the life of David {e.g., Psalms 3; 7; 18; 30; 34; 51}. There is evidence that the titles were added at an early date. When the psalms were translated into Greek, there appears to have been some difficulty in translating the titles, possibly because of their antiquity. If the historical references were added at a late date, there is no reason why plausible backgrounds could not have been supplied for all the Davidic psalms, instead of only a few. Moreover, the apparent disparity between the title and the actual content of some psalms {e.g., Psalm 30} indicates that the titles were supplied by those who knew about a connection unknown to a later editor. Admittedly, there are minor discrepancies between the titles and the references in the historical books. For example, in Psalm 34 David acts the madman before Abimelech, whereas in 1 Samuel it is before Achish. But probably Abimelech was the general name {like Pharaoh for the kings of Egypt} for all the Philistine kings {e.g., Genesis 21:32; 26:26}. Evidence of authorship and historical background in the titles, therefore, may be taken as a reasonably reliable guide. But the internal difficulties, together with the freedom exercised by successive translators into Greek, Syriac, and Latin, indicates that they were not regarded as inspired.

THE CASE FOR DAVIDIC AUTHORSHIP

Five points can be offered to support David’s authorship of several psalms:

1 -- The authenticity of David’s lament over Saul and Jonathan {2 Samuel 1:19-27} is generally accepted. This indicates a deeply poetic spirit and a generous temperament that prepares us to accept those psalms ascribed to David that evidence similar characteristics. “The last words of David” is another Davidic poem in the historical books {2 Samuel 23:1-7}.

2 -- David had a reputation as a skilful musician at Saul’s court {1 Samuel 16:16-18}. Amos comments on his inventiveness as a musician {Amos 6:5}, while the Chronicler repeatedly stresses his contribution to the musical aspect of temple worship {e.g., 1 Chronicles 6:31; 16:7; Ezra 3:10}. The Jewish historian Josephus said that David composed songs and hymns to YHVH in varied meters. The probability is that David, as well as amassing materials and preparing the plans for Solomon’s temple, also gave attention to the temple worship. This is his place in Jewish tradition.

3 -- The early monarchy, with a freshly secured independence, national prestige, and a new prosperity, would most likely be a time of artistic creativity. David was at the heart of this movement.

4. There is a close correspondence between David’s life as described in the historical books and certain psalms, for example, his sin concerning Bathsheba and Uriah {2 Samuel 11:2–12:25} and Psalm 51, as witnessed in the title. David’s lapses and genuine repentance, as well as the varied aspects of his career -- shepherd, fugitive, warrior, and so on -- find expression in many of the psalms attributed to him. The correspondence between the David of the psalms and the David of the historical books is close, especially in the display of strong faith in YHVH.

5. Although some scholars believe that when “David” is mentioned in the New Testament, it is simply a reference to the book of Psalms and not an ascription of authorship, a straightforward interpretation of the New Testament text strengthens the case for Davidic authorship. David is specifically named as the author of various psalms in Matthew 22:41-45; Acts 1:16; 2:25, 34; Romans 4:6; 11:9.

In conclusion, there is strong support for the view that the substantial nucleus of the Psalter is Davidic. Moreover, it is probable that some of the anonymous psalms were the work of the “sweet psalmist of Israel” {2 Samuel 23:1}. Hebrews 4:7 refers one of these, Psalm 95, to David {see also Acts 4:25 and Psalm 2}.

DATE

Once David’s authorship of several psalms is established, then it must follow that these psalms are dated during David’s life. Thus, most of the psalms formed the hymnbook of Israel in the period of the monarchy. Other psalms were written later. For example, Psalm 137 is clearly exilic, and Psalms 107:2-3 and 126:1 allude to the return from captivity. Psalms 44 and 79 are probably, but not conclusively, postexilic. The book of Psalms was probably the product of a considerable period of growth. The incidence of Davidic psalms in the first section indicates that it was completed early, possibly toward the end of David’s reign. The remainder of the process of compilation is difficult to reconstruct, but the fact that the titles, with their allusions to authors, events, and musical directions, become less frequent in the two final collections {Psalms 90–150} lends support to the probability that the collections were combined chronologically in the sequence in which they are found today. Ezra is traditionally credited with the final grouping and editing of the psalms, a hypothesis that appears reasonable in light of his vital contribution to the systematic reshaping of the national religious life. In any case, the process was completed before the translation of the Psalter into Greek {the Septuagint} at the end of the third century BC, since the traditional order is found there. General, but not complete, support comes also from the evidence of the Dead Sea Scrolls. At some point minor dislocations occurred. Psalms 9 and 10 may have originally formed one psalm {as in the Septuagint}, and there is a strong case for combining Psalms 42 and 43.

BACKGROUND

As the book of Psalms lies before us, its connection with temple worship is apparent. Fifty-five psalms are addressed to the choirmaster, and as we have noted, 23 or 24 are linked with the two main guilds of Levitical singers, Asaph and Korah. The musical instruments, such as stringed instruments {Psalm 55 title} and flutes {Psalm 5 title} are noted. Probably other terms concern musical directions: Selah, which occurs 71 times, may indicate a pause or crescendo; Higgaion {Psalm 9:16} may recommend a meditative attitude. Seemingly obscure references like “The Hind of the Dawn” {Psalm 22 title}, “Lilies” {Psalms 45 title; Psalm 80 title} and “The Dove on Far-off Terebinths” {Psalm 56 title} may indicate the tunes to which the psalms were to be sung. The precise meaning of other terms, such as Shiggaion {Psalm 7 title} or Alamoth {conjecturally a choir of ladies, Psalm 46 title}, may also be in the realm of musical directions.

STRUCTURE

The Psalter, possibly in conscious imitation of the five books of Moses in the Law, is divided into five sections {Psalms 1–41; 42–72; 73–89; 90–106; 107–150}, separated by four doxologies {41:13; 72:18-19; 89:52; 106:48}. While the editorial comment in Psalm 72:20 notes that the psalms of David were ended, Davidic psalms are found later in the book {Psalms 86; 101; 103}, suggesting that at least some of these sections circulated independently until their inclusion in the final collection. Such independence is further indicated by the duplications in the various sections {e.g., Psalms 14 and 53; 40:13-17 and 70} and by the use of different names for YHVH, who is usually referred to as “Adonai” in the first collection and as “YHVH” in the second.

CANONICITY

In the various recensions of the third section of the Hebrew canon, the Writings or Holy Books, the book of Psalms is almost invariably placed first. It was clearly regarded as the most important book in this section, and in Luke 24:44, “Psalms” is synonymous with “Writings” as its title. While the canonicity of all the contents of the Writings was not finalized until the end of the first century AD, it is likely that the book of Psalms was accepted as inspired long before this, probably by 300 BC. It must not be inferred that all the psalms had their origin in the cultic life of the community, but the sanctuary was the focal point of Israel’s worship for the greater part of the Old Testament period. Prayer was possible elsewhere, but whenever practicable, it was customary for the worshiper to present his petitions at the main sanctuary. And thanksgiving in ancient Israel was almost invariably connected with a thank offering, vow offering, or freewill offering. The psalms could have been composed by individuals, like David, who had the requisite technical ability. And it must be appreciated that poetry, an unfamiliar medium to most Western civilizations, was the natural way for the ancient Easterner to express his emotions. Or the individual could have engaged a member of the Levitical guilds of musicians to frame either his supplication or his thanksgiving. Gradually, a comprehensive collection of psalms would be available for the use of individuals, the congregation, and even the entire nation in any conceivable situation. Once finalized, this collection served not only the subsequent needs of Israel but the devotional requirements of successive generations of believers as well. Whatever the origin of an individual psalm, each has finally been incorporated in a cultic setting, and it may be assumed that the best of Israel’s psalmody has thus been preserved.

PURPOSE AND THEOLOGY

THE DOCTRINE OF YHVH

In both adversity and prosperity, the psalmists indicate a strong faith in YHVH and a clear conception of his attributes. Understandably, anthropomorphisms {ascribing human characteristics to nonhuman things} abound, with references to YHVH’s voice, words, ears, eyes, face, or hands and fingers. No exception needs to be taken to this. Anthropomorphisms of this kind are, in fact, widely used by present-day believers. Their great value is that they make YHVH real to the worshiper. How else could humans describe YHVH, except in terms of their own understanding? The monotheism of the psalms emerges clearly in Psalms 115:3-8; 135:15-18; 139. YHVH is viewed as the Creator {Psalms 8:3; 89:11; 95:3-5}, with references to the creation mythology of surrounding nations {e.g., Psalm 89:10} serving merely as illustrations of his almighty creative power. He is proclaimed as Adonai of history {Psalms 44; 78; 80; 81; 105; 106} and as the sovereign controller of nature {Psalms 18:7; 19:1-6; 65:8-13; 105:26-42; 135:5-7}. The psalmists never tired of celebrating YHVH’s absolute greatness.

THE HUMAN PERSPECTIVE

The Psalter is a YHVH-centred book, but humanity has a worthy place, in spite of the vast gulf between them and their Creator {Psalms 8:3-4; 145:3-4} and the limitations of their earthly life {Psalm 90:9-10}. By the will of YHVH, humans occupy a responsible, mediating position between YHVH and all other created beings {Psalm 8:5-8}. The relationship with a righteous YHVH is endangered by sin {Psalm 106}, but YHVH is gracious and long-suffering {Psalm 103}, faithful and forgiving {Psalm 130}. While references to the sacrificial system are not lacking {Psalms 20:3; 50:8-9}, the emphasis is upon a personal piety that demands obedience and a surrendered heart {Psalm 40:6-8}. Psalm 51 indicates a depth of sin with which the sacrificial system was totally inadequate to cope; the psalmist could only cast himself, in total penitence, upon YHVH’s mercy. Man’s moral obligations {Psalms 15; 24:3-5} and loyalty to the Law {Psalms 19:7-11; 119} are fully accepted. Throughout, there is the revelation of a strong personal relationship that encourages prayer and praise and invites trust.